Maltese St. Croix- St. Croix in the Virgin Islands was settled by a variety of European nations, but fell under French control in the early seventeenth century. One of the groups most active in settling the island was the Order of St. John of Malta. Upon the resignation of M. de Poincy (a French planter and member of the Order) as the King's governor, the Knights of Malta petitioned the royal court of France for sovereign control over St. Croix and some surrounding islands. It was granted in March of 1653. Bonded labor was imported to serve on the sugar plantations, as the use of African slaves was not yet the accepted practice in the Caribbean. In 1665, the Knights sold their West Indian colonies to the French West India Company.
St. James, Kingdom of- see Beaver Island.
St. Mary's, Port of- Founded on St. Mary's Island northeast of Madagascar in 1691 by Adam Baldridge, St. Mary's soon became a favorite port of call for pirate ships travelling the Indian Ocean. Baldridge quickly made himself king of the island, holding the balance of power between the numerous native tribes. In May of 1699, the British Navy shelled St. Mary's. Following this demonstration of power and the beginning of regular Royal Navy patrols in the Indian Ocean, St. Mary's quickly receded into obscurity.
Saarland- The Saar is a coal-producing area about the size of Rhode Island on the French-German border. It was separated from Germany in 1919 and placed under the administration of the League of Nations, although occupied by French troops. It was returned to Germany following a plebiscite in 1935.
Sabinada- see Bahia, Republic of.
Saint-Malo- Saint-Malo is a port in the French region of Brittany. The town, long a haven for pirates, always maintained a fierce independent streak. During the Wars of Religion, when the Protestant King Henri IV took the throne, Saint-Malo refused to recognize him, declaring itself the Republic of France. When Henri recanted four years later (with the famous words, "Paris is worth a Mass"), Saint-Malo returned to the French kingdom.
Sakha- see Yakutia.
Salé, Republic of- also Republic of Sallee, Bou Regreg Republic, Triple Republic. Salé, now part of Rabat, was originally a separate city across the Bou Regreg River from that port and the Casbah. It first came to prominence as a center of the North Africa-Spain trade in the 11th century. In 1614, Rabat declared itself independent under the holy man al-Ayyashi. In 1627, Casbah declared its independence as the Hornachero Republic and Salé followed suit. The three city-states, despite their mutual dislike and squabbling, shared two important characteristics; all were convinced that they were following the natural leader of the Jihad, and all were pirate havens. Following the Spanish capture of the Moroccan city of Mamora, a large number of freebooters had taken refuge in the Bou Regreg. The balance of power was precarious, and a civil war in 1630 was halted only through English mediation. The agreement left the Hornacheros as the predominant faction, which disgruntled al-Ayyashi, who had settled in Salé. A year later, he declared jihad against the pirate republics. Rabat repelled an attack and conquered the Casbah in 1636. A siege of Salé was lifted through the intervention of the English again, who sunk the bridge Rabat had built and forced the return of the Hornacheros. After al-Ayyashi launched yet another attack on the west bank of the river in 1638, Rabat and the Casbah appealed to the Sufi leader Muhammad al-Hajj, who invaded Salé and killed al-Ayyashi.
The Triple Republic, under a sort of Sufi-pirate condominum, was now free
to focus its attention on stealing things. This happy state of affairs did not
last long; the resurgent Moroccan dynasty of the Alawites subdued Salé
in 1668, putting an end to the region’s independence.
Salihiyah- see Taalex.
Salvador- see Bahia, Republic of.
Samos- An island in the Aegean, Samos gained its independence from Turkey during the Greek War of Independence. As part of the peace settlement dictated by the European powers in 1832, it was returned to Turkish rule under a Greek governor appointed by the Sultan. In September of 1912, the inhabitants rebelled against the Turks, who were embroiled in the Balkans. Two Italian warships were sent to support the rebellion, and Samos was annexed to Greece in 1913.
Sanaguere- see Leonor’s Palenque.
San Basilio- In the early 17th century, a slave named Domingo Bioho changed his name to King Benkos and led a slave rebellion in northern Colombia. Bioho and his followers defeated two separate Spanish expeditions, retreating into the country's interior. They founded the village of Matuna, and accepted terms from the Spanish governor. In 1619, however, Benkos Bioho was hanged when it was found he was plotting a fresh rebellion. The survivors of Bioho’s settlement fled further from the coast, establishing the village of San Basilio, which survived as an independent nation until 1717, when San Basilio accepted Spanish sovereignty.
San Blas- San Blas was an early Maroon settlement, founded in the central mountains of Panama in 1552. The Maroons raided the commerce routes and local villages for six years, despite the fact that their leader, King Ballamo, was captured and castrated in 1553. The community disbanded in 1558.
San Cristobal- Inspired by Mayan success in the Yucatan Rebellion, the Chamulan Indians of Chiapas, a state in southern Mexico, rose up against the white landowners in 1868. A year later, they seized the city of San Cristobal. Mexican government forces soon reasserted control of the area and massacred the principal leaders of the rebellion.
San Francisco- In 1851, San Francisco was still very much a mining town. Murders occurred almost nightly, and rival gangs divided the city's streets, businesses, and political offices into their turfs. The two largest mobs were the Hounds and the Sydney Ducks. The police, either cowed or bought off, refused to stop the gangsters. A number of citizens, formed into a Vigilance Committee, disbanded the elected government. The troops of the Vigilance Committee lynched several gang leaders, banishing or imprisoning many more. The state government, anxious to see San Francisco cleaned up, winked at the first military coup in American history.
The Vigilance Committee was resurrected in 1856. The city was edgy after the killing of a US Marshal by a gangster; the trial ended with an acquital. When a newspaper editor published an editorial denouncing the corrupt city government, he was assassinated by another gang member in broad daylight on May 14. . Within two days, the Vigilance Committee was re-established under William T. Coleman. 2500 men joined the Committee's militia, and started drilling in companies of infantry, cavalry, and artillery. After the city's elected officials raised an uproar, Coleman met with Governor J. Neely Johnson, and again came away with Sacramento's complicity. On May 18, the Committee removed both gangsters from the San Francisco jail, held a curiously rapid court-martial, and executed them both by firing squad. The Vigilance Committee then set eagerly to the task of jailing or banishing most of the Democratic party officials in the city, accusing them (it must be said, correctly) of graft and conspiracy. Appalled by this carnival of unconstitutionality, Justice Terry of the California Supreme Court arrived on June 21st and promptly got into a shouting match with a Committeeman who refused to surrender his rifle in the town square. Terry, inflamed, stabbed the man in the neck with a Bowie knife. The Committee arrested Justice Terry; he was put on trial and forced to sign a letter of resignation from the state Supreme Court. The unfortunate militiaman lived, and so Terry was not executed. On August 18, the Committee wrapped up its affairs and returned San Francisco to the elected officials. By most accounts, the United States has remained under democratic rule since that time.
Santa Catarina, Republic of- also Catarinan Republic. In 1839, Brazil’s southern provinces, starting with Rio Grande do Sul, declared independence from Brazil. Santa Catarina joined Rio Grande do Sul, but was subdued by the same army that marched south to recapture Rio Grande later that year.
Santa Cruz, Republic of- The Cambas are a mestizo people, and inhabit the eastern half of Bolivia. Tensions between the Cambas and the central government led to the declaration of Santa Cruz's independence in July of 1921. The government restored control less than a year later. The Chaco War of 1935 between Bolivia and Paraguay led to a resuscitation of Santa Cruz, but the Bolivians subdued the Cambas soon after the war's end.
Santarém- Santarém was a settlement of over a thousand Maroons, located about halfway down the Amazon. In 1877, sixty of its inhabitants were captured by slave traders and returned to a family which claimed them in Belém. By this point in time, many of Brazil's judges had become abolitionists, and the judicial system ruled that there was no convincing proof that the Santarémos were escaped slaves. Santarém lasted as an independent settlement until Brazil's government passed emancipation.
Sanusiyah- The Sanusis were a Sufi sect which arose in the late 18th century in Libya. The Sanusis soon gained control over a large part of the Sahara, and were recognized as the representatives of the Ottoman Sultan in Libya. Following the invasion of Libya by the Italians, the Sanusis were pushed back into the desert. After Italy became entangled in the First World War, the Sanusis pushed the Italians back to the coast, establishing Cyrenaica as an independent Emirate. In 1917, the British negotiated a cease-fire between the Sanusis and the Italians. The peace broke down in 1921, and the Sanusis repudiated Italian sovereignty. The Fascist government placed a high priority on subduing the Sanusis, and the last Sufi leader was captured and executed in late 1931. The rebellion against Italian rule left over fity thousand dead. The Sanusis rebelled again during the Second World War, and were brought under a British protectorate in 1944. Their leader, Idris, was proclaimed King of Libya in 1952.
Sanwi- Sanwi, along the eastern border of Côte d'Ivoire, is inhabited by the Agni people. The Agni agitated for separate rule under French administration. When it became obvious that both the French and the Ivorians planned to ignore Agni calls for self-rule, Sanwi seceded in 1960. The Ivorian government quickly occupied the area, and the Agni have suffered from severe repression in independent Côte d'Ivoire.
Saramacas- The Maroon nation of the Saramacas won independence from the Dutch government in Surinam in 1762, after the Saramacas agreed to install a Dutch advisor to the ruler, or gran man. The Saramacas, along with the nearby Auca Republic, reverted to Dutch rule under pressure from the followers of Boni, who started a race war and tried to bully the Maroon tribes into unity. He only succeeded in destroying the nascent independent black nations and consolidating Dutch control over Surinam’s back country.
Sarawak- James Brooke was a trader who established himself in Sarawak in northwest Borneo in the late 1830s. He ingratiated himself with the Rajah, and became an important player in court politics. After his main opponent initiated an armed conflict, Brooke executed a coup against the Rajah and spent the next several years consolidating his control over Sarawak. The kingdom was sufficiently subdued for Brooke to pass control to his nephew Charles in the 1870s. Vyner Brooke, the last Rajah, was driven from Sarawak by the Japanese shortly after he instituted constitutional rule. He returned shortly to prepare the country for transition to British rule, which began on July 1, 1946. The Brooke family now resides in Great Britain.
Saugeais, Republic of- Saugeais is a region in the French Department of Montbenoit. During the 12th century, the local seigneur granted a significant degree of self-rule to the inhabitants. In 1947, the inhabitants reasserted their privileges, declaring themselves an independent republic with the permission of the Department's Prefect. The Republic's main export is quaintness, and while it remains unrecognized by the French government, it does maintain a close working relationship with Montbenoit's Office of Tourism.
Saxony, Soviet Republic of- Following the end of the First World War and the collapse of the German monarchy, Communist and Socialist parties took control of the government in the state of Saxony, in southeastern Germany. The Weimar Republic reached its lowest ebb in late 1922; the occupation of the Ruhr Valley by France in lieu of debt repayment destabilized the German mark. As the government became involved in battling rightist coup attempts and a secessionist movement in the Rhineland, the Communists decided the time was ripe for revolution. In September of 1922, the government of Saxony began organizing a worker's militia. Alarmed, the central government declared martial law and demanded that the militias be dissolved. Prime Minister Erich Zeigner of Saxony refused, and the German Army occupied the state on October 23. Six days later, Zeigner and the Communists were expelled from Saxony's government.
Sealand- In the 1960s, one of Great Britain's more productive cottage industries was pirate radio. The painfully bland BBC and the painfully bland government of Harold Wilson took umbrage, and soon the pirate transmitters were forced underground. After one pirate station began transmitting from a ship outside the three-mile limit of the UK's waters, Roy Bates and Ronan O'Rohilly, both owners of pirate radio stations, got to thinking.
The North Sea at this time was littered with Second World War-vintage radar platforms. In 1966, Bates and O'Rohilly occupied one and called it Sealand. They began hatching moneymaking schemes ranging from not just a pirate radio station, but also a gambling resort and a corporate tax haven. As the freshly-minted nation's prospects rose, so did the tension between the diumvirs of the baseball-diamond sized empire. Bates seized the tower. In June of 1967, O'Rohilly launched an offensive, which Bates and his men repulsed with guns, Molotov cocktails, and a surplus flamethrower. Upon hearing that the Royal Marines were preparing to seize the platform, Bates declared Sealand's independence and himself Prince Roy on September 2. When a Royal Navy ship demanded that Bates abandon the platform, the Prince opened fire. On a jaunt back to the old country, Bates was arrested and brought before a British court on a number of charges related to the incident. The case was dismissed in October of 1968; the court agreed that Prince Roy's Sealand was outside of British jurisdiction.
Sealand stayed out of the news until a German businessman toured Sealand a few years later. During negotiations, the German’s hired Dutch goons kidnapped the crown prince and set him back ashore. Prince Roy rapidly got together an army, hired a helicopter, and retook the tower. Since the German had accepted Sealand citizenship, Bates arrested him for treason. Over the next seven weeks, the German government repeatedly appealed to the British Foreign Office, which insisted that it had no jurisdiction. Further vindicated, Bates eventually released the German without payment of his 75,000 Deutschmark fine.
The next uproar took place during the Falkland Islands War of 1982. Argentina's initial success rapidly eroded, and the Argentines conceived of a desperate plan. They contacted Bates and asked to lease Sealand as a missile base, hoping to destroy British morale. Bates swallowed down his mercenary impulses and declined. In a completely unrelated matter, Britain extended its territorial waters to the 20 kilometer limit later that year, soon after dynamiting another tower near Sealand. Prince Roy refused to give up the ship, though. In 1999, he entered into negotiations with HavenCo to lease the entire nation. HavenCo (naturally) now plans to turn Sealand into an offshore data haven. Since the EU has already extended Sealand a certain degree of de facto recognition, it remains to be seen how these plans will develop.
Seborga- Seborga is a village of 350 in the Italian Alps. It was first recognized by the Holy Roman Empire as independent in 954. Its claims to independence were summarily dismissed during the Congress of Vienna. Seborga again declared independence following a stunning referendum victory by Prince Giorgio I, who won election to an eight-year term as prince in 1994. The Italian government has refused to acknowledge Seborga's claims.
Sedang, Kingdom of- Charles David Mayréna was born in France in 1842. When France launched its conquest of Southeast Asia, Mayréna volunteered for service there. After gaining a post as an administrator, he promptly fled Paris for Java in June of 1883, fearing prosecution for embezzlement. The next year, he was expelled from the Dutch East Indies. He returned to Paris and organized an arms shipment to Aceh. While returning to the East Indies, he stopped in Vietnam and started a plantation. In 1888, the King of Siam began claiming territory west of French territory. Anxious, the Governor of the Indochinese Union agreed to Mayréna's proposed expedition to the interior.
When Mayréna reached the central highlands, he organized the local tribes into the Kingdom of Sedang, and declared himself King Marie I. He offered to cede his kingdom to France in exchange for monopoly rights, and hinted that the Prussians were interested if the French were not. When the French government became understandably chilly, Mayréna approached the English at Hong Kong. When he was rebuffed there, Mayréna went to Belgium. In 1889, a Belgian financier named Somsy offered arms and money to Mayréna in exchange for mineral rights. Unfortunately, the French Navy blockaded Vietnamese ports to prevent his return, and his arms were seized as contraband at Singapore. Mayréna retired to British Malaya, where he died under mysterious circumstances in 1890.
Senegambian Confederation-
Septinsular Republic- also Republic of the Ionian Islands, Republic of the Seven Islands. In June of 1797, Napoleon captured Venice and forced the cession of the Ionian Islands in the Aegean to France. The Ottomans were alarmed at the sudden appearance of republicanism so close to Turkey, and allied with the Russians, who took the Ionian Islands in 1800. France regained control of the islands after defeating Russia and the Second Coalition in 1807. In 1814, the United Kingdom seized the Ionians and declared them the Septinsular Republic. The Republic was only nominally independent, and was a British protectorate in all but name. Britain presented the Ionians to the King of Greece as a gift in 1864.
Seven Islands, Republic of the- see Septinsular Republic.
Shaba- see Katanga.
Shan State- The Shan first rebelled in November of 1959, but their state in northern Burma (today's Golden Triangle) was badly hurt by its lack of unity, and failure to cooperate with other secessionist movements in the area. The Shan United Army was organized in 1964 by Khun Sa, an opium grower originally allied with the Mong Hsat Kuomintang forces. Although the SUA posed as a Shan secessionist movement, it was organized wholly as an opium cartel. Khun Sa was captured by the Burmese in 1967, but managed to escape shortly after the Kuomintang lost its American aid in 1975.
Khun Sa rapidly became the dominant power in the Golden Triangle. Confrontations with the Thai Army led to his downfall in 1983, although he managed to eliminate the remnants of the Kuomintang. At the same time, another Shan leader led his troops into the Burmese Communist camp, shattering the legitimate political opposition. The situation in the Golden Triangle is now chaotic, with several opium lords and secessionist groups vying for control of the region.
Shandong- see Shantung.
Shantung- The Chinese province of Shantung declared its independence in response to President Yuan Shih-k'ai's 1915 attempt to reestablish the Empire. Upon Yuan's fall, Shantung returned to the Republic.
Siberia, Republic of- On December 7, 1917, one day after the Tomsk Soviet declared Siberia under Bolshevik rule, a hastily convoked All-Siberian Provisional Council declared Siberia autonomous. The Siberian Duma met one month later. The Siberian government had little time to consolidate its power before the Tomsk Soviet toppled it on January 26, 1918. The members of the Duma fled east to Omsk, where the White government under Admiral Kolchak quelled any talk of an independent or autonomous Siberia.
The Republic of Great Siberia, declared at Blagoveshchensk on December 22, 1917, was even less successful. Red Guard detachments overthrew the Great Siberian government the next day. A final attempt to set up an independent Siberia occurred near the end of the Civil War, on November 17, 1919. Members of the Social Revolutionary Party, emboldened by Soviet successes against Kolchak's White Russian Army, declared the formation of the Provisional People's Government of Siberia at Vladivostok. Within a day, the revolt had been brutally suppressed. While no accurate figures are available, hundreds of SR partisans were executed by the White military after the revolt ended.
Sichuan- see Szechwan Great Han Military Government.
Sicily, First Republic of- The rebellion of Sicily in 1848 was the first in a series of revolutionary movements that rocked nearly every government in Europe. Its main cause was the corruption and brutality of government by the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, under King Ferdinand of Naples. After a series of provocations, including a smallpox epidemic and a rebellion on the mainland in Calabria, radical democrats issued circulars calling for a revolt on January 12, 1848. The call did not go unheeded, and soon barricades were up all over Palermo. Peasants and mafiosi rallied to the cause, and soon several thousand insurgents faced the Neapolitan garrison. In little over a month, the rebels overran every royalist stronghold with the exception of Messina, and consolidated their hold over the entire island. The collapse of the king's government and the appointment of a liberal prime minister defused revolutionary efforts on the mainland, but Sicily held firm. In March, the efforts of British mediators failed, and although Sicily remained a kingdom, the Bourbons of Naples were repudiated. After Ferdinand launched a coup against his liberal Parliament in May, he sent troops to fortify Messina. Appalled by the savagery of Ferdinand's troops, Britain and France intervened to force a six month armistice. This respite was squandered by the Sicilian government, which failed to raise an effective army or mobilize the population. When Ferdinand launched a new offensive in March of 1849, the Sicilian Army crumbled, and Palermo was taken on May 15.
Sicily, Second Republic of- In order to gain support for their invasion in 1943, the Allies supported the secession of Sicily under Turiddo Giuliano. Before the Sicilians could do more than muster a rudimentary militia, the Allies dropped the Republic to encourage Italy to defect from the Axis. The Italians, with Allied approval, invaded Sicily and regained control before the end of the year. However, the reemergence of democratic government and the devastation of Sicily's economy allowed the secessionists to regroup. In 1944, an alliance of conservative landowners, mafiosi, and naive leftist militiamen revolted. The revolt never gained the support of many Sicilians, and ended when Sicily was granted autonomy in May of 1946. Guiliano's death in 1950 was the final nail in the coffin of Sicilian independence.
Sierra Madre, Republic of- Following his involvement in the Rio Grande affair, José Carvajal returned to Texas. He hatched a new plan to detach Tamaulipas and Nuevo León from Mexico as the Republic of Sierra Madre. He assembled his first invasion force in September, 1851. His expedition swiftly captured the border town of Camargo, but bogged down there. Upon learning that U.S. troops were pursuing him, he left to beseige Matamoros. Beaten off by Mexican troops and with the Americans closing in, Carvajal retreated to his base in Texas. Further expeditions in 1852 and 1853 accomplished nothing, and Carvajal gave up his hopes of nation-building, eventually ending his political career in New York after he was sacked by President Juarez for his prosecution of the war against the French occupation.
Sikhs- see Khalistan.
Sikkim, Kingdom of-
Slovakia, Soviet Republic of- In 1919, Bela Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic was under attack from all sides. The victorious Entente powers were unwilling to allow the existence of a Communist state in Central Europe. Romania had annexed Transylvania. The most pressing concern was the invasion of northern Hungary by Czechoslovakia. In early April, the Czech forces launched a heavy attack, which quickly ground to a halt. The Hungarian forces counterattacked, and soon had forced the Czechoslovakian Army back onto its home ground. As the Soviets advanced, they found the Slovak population chafing under Czech control. The working class (and the draftees in the Czech Army) rallied to the Hungarians. A Slovak Soviet Republic rapidly formed, and instituted a wide range of land and human rights reforms.
The Slovak Republic's situation became critical in May. Although the Hungarians had effectively destroyed the Czechoslovakian Army, the supply system had broken down back home. In addition, Germany's ratification of the Treaty of Versailles ended the Entente, and gave France (which had encouraged intervention against the Soviet Republic) more leeway in Europe. As Poland began to occupy northern Bohemia and the Czech government teetered at the brink of collapse, Hungary bowed to a French ultimatum and retreated from Slovakia. The debacle eroded much of Bela Kun's support, and the Hungarian Soviet Republic collapsed within a matter of months.
Solon Republic- see Eastern Mongolia.
Somaliland Republic- In May of 1991, the northern clans of Somalia declared the former British Somaliland independent. The region, which has long felt alienated from the government at Mogadishu (especially after Mohammed Siad Barre's government sent bombers against civilian targets there during the Somali civil war of the 1980s), has remained peaceful through the turmoil of the warlord era. The government of Somaliland, organized along British lines, has functioned smoothly, and a national constitution won overwhelming support in a referendum held in May of 2001. Despite Somaliland's relative success and peacefulness, the international community has refused to recognize the republic, preferring to back the claims of the new Somalian government. While Somalia has pledged not to use force against Somaliland, Somalia's new President Abdiqassim Salad Hassan has asserted that Somaliland belongs to Somalia.
Sonderbund- In 1845, the six Catholic cantons of Switzerland formed der Sonderbund, or "Secret Alliance", in order to combat the rising spirit of secularism in Protestant-dominated Switzerland. In July of 1847, the Sonderbund openly revolted and was defeated by Swiss government forces 25 days later. The Swiss government then instituted the current Constitution.
Sonora, Republic of- Mid-nineteenth century Sonora, in northwestern Mexico, was poor and isolated. Indian raids, arid conditions, and proximity to the U.S. border made Mexican officials uneasy over the province's security. In 1852, Count Gaston Raousset-Boulbon proposed the creation of a French settlement, which would help to stabilize and develop Sonora. The Mexican governor readily agreed. After Raousset's arrival in July, however, he found the state officials hostile and suspicious. Tensions rose, and Raousset provoked a military confrontation by refusing to compromise with what he saw as intolerable revisions to his agreement with the Mexican government. The French left their colony in September, and occuped the city of Hermosillo on October 6, expelling the Mexican commander for Sonora. Raousset hoisted a flag proclaiming "Liberty to the State of Sonora" and approached rebels throughout the state. However, a violent attack of dysentery crippled the Count and several of his lieutenants before he could consolidate his victory.
Raousset was soon organizing a second expedition, after William Walker's filibuster in Lower California. The Mexican president Santa Anna lured a thousand of Raousset's troops away by offering them citizenship in early 1853. Faced with heavy opposition by the United States government, Raousset-Boulbon was unable to join the remaining French at Guaymas until July of 1854. After a brief battle, the demoralized and divided French were handily defeated, and Raousset was captured and sentenced to execution.
Sonora's isolation and proximity to the flourishing US economy encouraged the state's independent tendencies. In 1913, Sonora's governor Pesquiera refused to recognize the government of President Huerta, declaring Sonora's independence. Alvaro Obregón, the leader of the Sonoran military, scored several major successes, occupying Chihuahua and capturing large amounts of materiel. While Obregón was effective, his success also bred enmity, and he began to lose political support. Venusiano Carranza, a lawyer who came north to join the Sonoran cause, exploited this to gather power to himself. Over the summer of 1913, Sonora became the nucleus of a larger national resistance, and Carranza was recognized as President of Mexico by the Sonoran leadership in 1914.
In 1920, Carranza's term as President was up. Constitutionally prevented from seeking a second term, Carranza handpicked a successor. He was challenged by Obregón. As it became apparent that Obregón was going to win, Carranza panicked and arrested him. Outraged, the Sonoran government seceded again. Obregón escaped from jail and gathered a rebel army, which forced Carranza into exile. With Obregón as President, Sonora again became part of Mexico.
Sonora, Republic of- William Walker- see Lower California, Republic of.
Sorbs- see Lusatia, Republic of.
South Haiti, Republic of- see Haiti, Kingdom of.
South Kasai, Mining State of- A province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo located northwest of Katanga, South Kasai is inhabited largely by members of the Luba tribe. Friction with Congo's other ethnic groups and encouragement by Belgian corporations hoping to keep their lucrative mining concessions led to South Kasai's secession shortly after Congo's independence in August of 1960. After being repulsed, the Congo occupied the province in September of 1962. Several thousand people were killed during the "pacification" of South Kasai, which lasted through the spring of 1963.
South Maluku, Republic of- see South Moluccas, Republic of the.
South Moluccas, Republic of the- The region of the South Moluccas, east of Borneo, is dominated by the island of Ambon. During the period of Dutch colonial rule, the Christian Ambonese became prosperous middlemen, serving in the military and civil service nearly on a par with Europeans. The Indonesian War of Independence understandably received only a lukewarm response in the Moluccas. When the Netherlands agreed to independence in 1949, the peace agreement called for a loose federal structure, which the Indonesians agreed to as a strategic measure. Relations between the central government and the Moluccas deteriorated steadily, especially after Jakarta dissolved the federal states and instituted a heavily centralized government. In April of 1950, Ambon seceded from Indonesia, arguing that it had only agreed to federation within the state of East Indonesia, which was now defunct, and asked the Dutch for protection. Indonesia promptly invaded the island and had secured it by November. Several rebel leaders escaped, and coordinated some resistance on other islands until 1962. A large population of Moluccans maintain a government in exile in the Netherlands. The region remains the center of Christian-Muslim tension in Indonesia today.
South Ossetian Democratic Republic- In December of 1990, President Gamsakhurdia of Georgia rescinded the autonomy of South Ossetia, a region in northern Georgia. Tension mounted steadily in the region. In August of 1991, Gamsakhurdia asked that North Ossetia, a region in the Russian Federation populated by the same ethnic group, drop "North" from its title and implicitly any claim to kinship with the South Ossetians. North Ossetia predictably refused. The situation spilled over into violence in November of 1991, when South Ossetia declared itself independent. Anxious to avoid the complete collapse of the Georgian government, Russian President Boris Yeltsin had previously signed an agreement which denied Russian recognition to any armed insurrection by the South Ossetians. The secession therefore went forward with barely any outside help.
South-Peruvian State- see Peru-Bolivia Confederation.
Southeastern Union- see Terek.
Southern Cameroons, Federal Republic of - The former German colony of Kamerun in western Africa was divided between the French and British following the First World War. The British portion, divided into Northern and Southern Cameroons, was administered as a section of the colony of Nigeria, while the much larger French portion was administered as part of French West Africa. On January 1, 1960, the French granted independence to Cameroun, as their trust territory had become known. Preparing to depart themselves, the British held a plebiscite in February of 1961 in their territory. While Northern Cameroons joined Nigeria, the people of Southern Cameroons voted to join Cameroun. On October 1, 1961, the two sections were united as the Federal Republic of Cameroon. However, the Federal Republic did not last long- in 1966, opposition political parties were banned and in 1972, Cameroon's President issued a plebiscite on forming a unitary republic. The federalist views of Southern Cameroons were overwhelmed by the Francophone majority. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, opposition to the government intensified, provoking a series of increasingly brutal reprisals. In 1999, the government-in-exile of the Southern Cameroons declared its independence from Cameroon. While the Federal Republic is largely notional, its support in the Southern Cameroons is strong.
Southern Mongolia- see Mongolian Federation.
Southern Sudan, Republic of- also Anyidi State. In 1963, the southern provinces of Sudan seceded under the Anya Nya (which means "snake venom") movement . The south half of Sudan is mostly Christian and black, and the north is Muslim Arab. The war deteriorated into a bloody stalemate which killed over 400,000 people. In 1969, Jaafar Nimieri became the Sudanese President following a military coup. He began negotiations with the Anyidi, which ended with both sides agreeing to end the war. In 1972, the southern provinces were merged into one, and given autonomy.
Southwestern Caucasian Republic- see Ajaristan.
Soutpansberg- see Zoutpansberg.
Spratly Islands- see Morac-Songhrati-Meads.
Srpska, Republic of- see Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serb Republic of.
Stellaland- The territory west of the Transvaal was occupied in the late 19th century by a variety of black tribes. In return for land rights and cattle, Afrikaners protected friendly tribes from their enemies. In 1882, one of these friendly chiefs granted a large tract of land to the Boer commando leader Gert van Niekirk. He founded the town of Vryburg, and declared it the capital of Stellaland. A second Boer republic, Goshen, was founded at Rooigrond to the north.
These states were located along Africa's "Missionary Road", which linked Britain's African colonies. Plans were laid for a union of the states and application for protection to the Transvaal. The republics were founded at an unfortunate pass in history. Germany had just begun occupation of Namibia, and the prospect of a Cape Colony surrounded by Germans and Boers was unacceptable. In 1884, the British annexed Stellaland and Goshen, bullying the Boer republics into agreement.
Sudanese Republic- see Mali Federation.
Sumapaz, Republic of- also Alto Sumapaz, Agricultural Colony of Sumapaz. The forest highlands of central Colombia have sheltered many insurgent and separatist groups. An important role in the region's political life was held for decades by the squatter colony of Sumapaz. Sumapaz was often at the forefront of peasant activism in the early 20th century. The tacit truce between the government and Sumapaz dissolved under Colombia's Conservative presidents in the 1940s. In 1948, Communist organizers led an uprising and declared Sumapaz independent. The Colombian Army reacted quickly and forcefully, moving entire villages and destroying crops. When the Sumapaz Republic's leaders surrendered a decade later, the formerly fertile and productive region had reverted to jungle.
See also Marquetalia.
Suvadiva- see United Suvadiva Republic.
Syria, Kingdom of- In the wake of the First World War, the Ottoman Empire collapsed and the Entente Powers moved quickly to assume control over its former possessions. In the Middle East, France received Syria and Lebanon, while Great Britain received Iraq, Jordan and Palestine. The British also had a number of client warlords left over from the Arab revolt which they had encouraged against the Turks. One of these, Prince Faisal of the Hejaz (now part of Saudi Arabia), had ended the war in Syria. As the French moved troops in, the jubilation of the Syrians turned to resentment against the new occupiers. Never reluctant to look for its own opportunities, Britain hinted to Faisal that they would support him in a rebellion. Thus encouraged, Faysal marched into Damascus and proclaimed Syria's independence. A congress of community leaders acclaimed him as king in March of 1920. In July, the French Army expelled Faysal from Damascus, and he retreated to British Iraq. As a sort of consolation prize, the British made him king of Iraq. His Hashemite descendants still hold the throne of Jordan.
Syunik Republic- also Republic of Mountainous Armenia. Syunik is a province in southeastern Armenia. After the collapse of the Armenian Republic at the hands of the Red Army, a number of diehard nationalists regrouped here and organized a new government, the Republic of Mountainous Armenia. The tiny republic fought off the Red Army for another two months before surrendering, gaining precious time for thousands to flee the new Soviet order.
Szechwan Great Han Military Government- On November 27, 1911, the Chinese province of Szechwan was declared independent as the Szechwan Great Han Military Government in opposition to the corrupt Qing Dynasty. When the revolutionary troops could not be paid, the soldiers went on a looting frenzy, toppling the government. This inauspicious beginning ushered in a series of military strongmen. Three separate warlord governments vied for legitimacy against each other and the Chinese Republic's nominal governor. In 1915, China's President Yuan Shih-K'ai declared himself Emperor, setting off a new revolution. Yuan's governor in Szechwan realized his position was beyond salvation in early 1916 and declared Szechwan independent again and allied with the rebels. This action fooled no one, and the provincial government was ousted by the end of the year. Szechwan declared itself independent a third time in early 1921, amid widespread disgust over continued factional fighting. Support waned and Szechwan rescinded its declaration. The province's five major warlords consolidated their control throughout the 1920s. Although technically part of the Chinese Republic, after 1927 Szechwan had an independent military, and neither paid taxes or sent representatives to the central government. The arrival of Communist guerrillas which spectacularly crushed a series of warlord armies led to a rapprochement with Nanking in 1934, although it was not until the Communists took control that Szechwan was integrated into Chinese national life.
Footnote- Salé If not the highly profitable pursuit of Christian loot. Back.